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Sunday, July 11, 2010

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Link: ENVIRONMENT PSYCHOLOGY

Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the term environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments, and informational environments. Since its conception, the field has been committed to the development of a discipline that is both value oriented and problem oriented, prioritizing research aiming at solving complex environmental problems in the pursuit of individual well-being within a larger society. *When solving problems involving human-environment interactions, whether global or local, one must have a model of human nature that predicts the environmental conditions under which humans will behave in a decent and creative manner. With such a model one can design, manage, protect and/or restore environments that enhance reasonable behavior, predict what the likely outcome will be when these conditions are not met, and diagnose problem situations. The field develops such a model of human nature while retaining a broad and inherently multidisciplinary focus. It explores such dissimilar issues as common property resource management, wayfinding in complex settings, the effect of environmental stress on human performance, the characteristics of restorative environments, human information processing, and the promotion of durable conservation behavior. This multidisciplinary paradigm has not only characterized the dynamic for which environmental psychology is expected to develop, but it has been the catalyst in attracting other schools of knowledge in its pursuit as well aside from research psychologists. Geographers, economists, geographers, policy-makers, sociologists, anthropologists, educators, and product developers all have discovered and participated in this field. * Although "environmental psychology" is arguably the best-known and most comprehensive description of the field, it is also known as human factors science, cognitive ergonomics, environmental social sciences, architectural psychology, socio-architecture, ecological psychology, ecopsychology, behavioral geography, environment-behavior studies, person-environment studies, environmental sociology, social ecology, and environmental design research. It is the link between the person and the built environment. The origins of this field of study are unknown, however, Willy Hellpach is said to be the first to mention “Environmental Psychology”. One of his books, Geopsyche discusses topics such as how the sun and the moon affect human activity, the impact of extreme environments, and the effects of color and form. The end of World War II brought about a higher demand for developments in the field of social psychology particularly in the areas of attitude change, small-group processes, and intergroup conflict. This demand caused psychologists to begin applying social psychology theories to a number of social issues such as prejudice, war, and peace. It was thought that if these problems were addressed, underlying notions and principles would surface.Although this time period was crucial to the development of the field, the methodologies used to carry out the studies were questionable. At the time, studies were being conducted in a laboratory setting, which caused some doubt as to their validity in the real world. Consequently, environmental psychologists began to conduct studies outside of the laboratory, enabling the field to continue to progress. Today environmental psychology is being applied to many different areas such as Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:08:00-07:00 11:08 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Ecology Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/environment-psychology
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Link: ecological health

ecological engineering is an emerging of study integrating Link: ecology Link or content described: Engineering and Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem , concerned with the design, monitoring and construction of Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Human society . Acoording to Mitch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate Link: human society Link or content described: Natural environment with its Link: natural environment Link or content described: Howard Odum for the benefit of both". Link: [1] ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. ecological engineering was introduced by Link: Howard Odum Link or content described: Engineering and others Link: [2] as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. Mitsch and Jorgensen Link: [3] wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted Link: [4] Link: [5] the design should be systems based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum Link: [6] emphasized that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering. Mitsch and Jørgensen Link: [3] were the first to define ecological engineering and provide ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the number of principles Link: [7] . They defined and characterized ecological engineering in a 1989 book and clarified it further in their 2004 book (see Literature). They suggest the goal of ecological engineering is: a) the restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and b) the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as: it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems, it can be a field test of ecological theory, it relies on integrated system approaches, it conserves non-renewable energy, and it supports biological conservation. Bergen et al. Link: [8] defined ecological engineering as: utilizing ecological science and theory, applying to all types of ecosystems, adapting engineering design methods, and acknowledging a guiding value system. Barrett (1999) Link: [9] offers a more literal definition of the term: "the design, construction, operation and management (that is, engineering) of landscape/aquatic structures and associated plant and animal communities (that is, ecosystems) to benefit humanity and, often, nature." Barrett continues: "other terms with equivalent or similar meanings include ecotechnology and two terms most often used in the erosion control field: soil bioengineering and biotechnical engineering. However, ecoengineering should not be confused with 'biotechnology' when describing genetic engineering at the cellular level, or 'bioengineering' meaning construction of artificial body parts." This Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem discipline combines basic and applied science from engineering, ecology, economics, and natural sciences for the restoration and construction of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The field of ecological engineering is increasing in breadth and depth as more opportunities to design and use ecosystems as interfaces between technology and environment are explored. Link: [10] 9.ecological health ecological health or ecological integrity or ecological damage is used to refer to symptoms of an Link: ecosystem Link or content described: Carrying capacity 's pending loss of Link: carrying capacity Link or content described: Nature , its ability to perform Link: nature's services Link or content described: Ecocide , or a pending Link: ecocide Link or content described: Pollution , due to cumulative causes such as Link: pollution Link or content described: Environmental health . The term health is intended to evoke human Link: environmental health Link or content described: Medicine concerns, which are often closely related (but as a part of Link: medicine Link or content described: Ecology not Link: ecology Link or content described: Ecocide ). As with Link: ecocide Link or content described: Gaia philosophy , that term assumes that ecosystems can be said to be alive (see also Link: Gaia philosophy Link or content described: Integrity on this issue). While the term integrity or damage seems to take no position on this, it does assume that there is a definition of Link: integrity Link or content described: Ecosystem that can be said to apply to Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Ecological wisdom . The more political term Link: ecological wisdom Link or content described: Biodiversity refers not only to recognition of a level of health, integrity or potential damage, but also, to a decision to do nothing (more) to harm that ecosystem or its dependents. Measures of ecological health, like measures of the more specific principle of Link: biodiversity Link or content described: Ecoregion , tend to be specific to an Link: ecoregion Link or content described: Ecosystem or even to an Link: ecosystem Link or content described: Biodiversity . Measures that depend on Link: biodiversity Link or content described: Ecological effects of biodiversity are valid indicators of ecological health as stability and productivity (good indicators of ecological health) are two Link: ecological effects of biodiversity Link or content described: Waste . Dependencies between species vary so much as to be difficult to express abstractly. However, there are a few universal symptoms of poor health or damage to system integrity: The buildup of Link: waste Link or content described: Bacterium material and the proliferation of simpler life forms ( Link: bacteria Link or content described: Insect , Link: insects Link or content described: Keystone species ) that thrive on it - but no consequent population growth in those species that normally prey on them; The loss of Link: keystone species Link or content described: Predator , often a top Link: predator Link or content described: Carnivore , causing smaller Link: carnivores Link or content described: Herbivore to proliferate, very often overstressing Link: herbivore Link or content described: Disease populations; A higher rate of species mortality due to Link: disease Link or content described: Bioinvader rather than predation, climate, or food scarcity; The migration of whole species into or out of a region, contrary to established or historical patterns; The proliferation of a Link: bioinvader Link or content described: Monoculture or even a Link: monoculture Link or content described: Organic farm where previously a more biodiverse species range existed. Some practices such as Link: organic farming Link or content described: Sustainable forestry , Link: sustainable forestry Link or content described: Landscaping , natural Link: landscaping Link or content described: Gardening , wild Link: gardening Link or content described: Precision agriculture or Link: precision agriculture Link or content described: Sustainable agriculture , sometimes combined into Link: sustainable agriculture Link or content described: Ecology , are thought to improve or at least not to degrade ecological health, while still keeping land usable for human purposes. This is difficult to investigate as part of Link: ecology Link or content described: Agricultural economics , but is increasingly part of discourse on Link: agricultural economics Link or content described: Conservation ethic and Link: conservation Link or content described: Ecotage . Link: Ecotage Link or content described: Political virtues is another tactic thought to be effective by some in protecting the health of ecosystems, but this is hotly disputed. In general, low confrontation and much attention to Link: political virtues Link or content described: Competition is thought to be important to maintaining ecological health, as it is far faster and simpler to destroy an ecosystem than protect it - thus wars on behalf of ecosystem integrity may simply lead to more rapid despoliation and loss due to Link: competition Link or content described: Scorched earth . See Link: scorched earth Link or content described: Easter Island Syndrome and Link: Easter Island Syndrome Link or content described: Deforestation . Link: Deforestation Link or content described: Coral reef and the loss of deep-sea Link: coral reef Link or content described: Clearcut habitat are two issues that prompt deep investigation of what makes for ecological health, and fuels a great many debates. The role of Link: clearcuts Link or content described: Plantation , Link: plantations Link or content described: Commercial trawler and Link: trawler Link or content described: Weapon nets is often portrayed as negative in the extreme, held akin to the role of Link: weapons Link or content described: author profile on human life. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:07:00-07:00 11:07 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! 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Link: ecological engineering

ecological engineering is an emerging of study integrating Link: ecology Link or content described: Engineering and Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem , concerned with the design, monitoring and construction of Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Human society . Acoording to Mitch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate Link: human society Link or content described: Natural environment with its Link: natural environment Link or content described: Howard Odum for the benefit of both". Link: [1] ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. ecological engineering was introduced by Link: Howard Odum Link or content described: Engineering and others Link: [2] as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. Mitsch and Jorgensen Link: [3] wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted Link: [4] Link: [5] the design should be systems based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum Link: [6] emphasized that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering. Mitsch and Jørgensen Link: [3] were the first to define ecological engineering and provide ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the number of principles Link: [7] . They defined and characterized ecological engineering in a 1989 book and clarified it further in their 2004 book (see Literature). They suggest the goal of ecological engineering is: a) the restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and b) the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as: it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems, it can be a field test of ecological theory, it relies on integrated system approaches, it conserves non-renewable energy, and it supports biological conservation. Bergen et al. Link: [8] defined ecological engineering as: utilizing ecological science and theory, applying to all types of ecosystems, adapting engineering design methods, and acknowledging a guiding value system. Barrett (1999) Link: [9] offers a more literal definition of the term: "the design, construction, operation and management (that is, engineering) of landscape/aquatic structures and associated plant and animal communities (that is, ecosystems) to benefit humanity and, often, nature." Barrett continues: "other terms with equivalent or similar meanings include ecotechnology and two terms most often used in the erosion control field: soil bioengineering and biotechnical engineering. However, ecoengineering should not be confused with 'biotechnology' when describing genetic engineering at the cellular level, or 'bioengineering' meaning construction of artificial body parts." This Link: engineering Link or content described: author profile discipline combines basic and applied science from engineering, ecology, economics, and natural sciences for the restoration and construction of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The field of ecological engineering is increasing in breadth and depth as more opportunities to design and use ecosystems as interfaces between technology and environment are explored. Link: [10] Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:06:00-07:00 11:06 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Transdisciplinary Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/ecological-engineering
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Link: ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

Ecological economics is a Link: transdisciplinary Link or content described: Coevolution field of academic research that aims to address the interdependence and Link: coevolution Link or content described: Economy of human Link: economies Link or content described: Ecosystem and natural Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Environmental economics over time and space. Link: [2] It is distinguished from Link: environmental economics Link or content described: Mainstream economics , which is the Link: mainstream economic Link or content described: Natural capital analysis of the environment, by its treatment of the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem and its emphasis upon preserving Link: natural capital Link or content described: Schools of economic thought . Link: [3] One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different Link: schools of economic thought Link or content described: Sustainability , with ecological economists emphasizing "strong" Link: sustainability Link or content described: Kenneth E. Boulding and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted for human-made capital. Link: [4] Ecological economics was founded in the works of Link: Kenneth E. Boulding Link or content described: Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen , Link: Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen Link or content described: Herman Daly , Link: Herman Daly Link or content described: Robert Costanza , Link: Robert Costanza Link or content described: Intergenerational equity , and others. The related field of green economics is, in general, a more politically applied form of the subject. Link: [5] Link: [6] The identity of ecological economics as a field has been described as fragile, with no generally accepted theoretical framework and a knowledge structure which is not clearly defined. Link: [7] According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time. Issues of Link: intergenerational equity Link or content described: Irreversibility , Link: irreversibility Link or content described: Uncertainty of environmental change, Link: uncertainty Link or content described: Sustainable development of long-term outcomes, and Link: sustainable development Link or content described: Cost-benefit analysis guide ecological economic analysis and valuation. Link: [7] Ecological economists have questioned fundamental mainstream economic approaches such as Link: cost-benefit analysis Link or content described: Normative ethics , and the separability of economic values from scientific research, contending that economics is unavoidably Link: normative Link or content described: Positive economics rather than Link: positive Link or content described: Biophysical economics (empirical). Link: [8] Positional analysis, which attempts to incorporate time and justice issues, is proposed as an alternative. Link: [9] Link: [10] Ecological economics includes the study of the metabolism of society, that is, the study of the flows of energy and materials that enter and exit the economic system. This subfield is also called Link: biophysical economics Link or content described: Bioeconomics , sometimes referred to also as Link: bioeconomics Link or content described: Wikipedia:Citation needed . It is based on a conceptual model of the economy connected to, and sustained by, a flow of energy, materials, and ecosystem services. [ Link: citation needed Link or content described: Sustainability ] Analysts from a variety of disciplines have conducted research on the economy-environment relationship, with concern for energy and material flows and Link: sustainability Link or content described: Environmental quality , Link: environmental quality Link or content described: Circular flow of income , and economic development. A simple Link: circular flow of income Link or content described: Production, costs, and pricing diagram is replaced in ecological economics by a more complex flow diagram reflecting the input of solar energy, which sustains natural inputs and environmental services which are then used as units of Link: production Link or content described: author profile . Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy as pollution and waste. The potential of an environment to provide services and materials is referred to as an "environment's source function", and this function is depleted as resources are consumed or pollution contaminates the resources. The "sink function" describes an environment's ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution: when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs. Link: [11] :8 Some persistent pollutants, such as some organic pollutants and nuclear waste are absorbed very slowly or not at all; ecological economists emphasize minimizing "cumulative pollutants". Link: [11] :28 Pollutants affect human health and the health of the climate. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:06:00-07:00 11:06 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! 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Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the Link: chemical Link or content described: Physics , Link: physical Link or content described: Geology , Link: geological Link or content described: Biology , and Link: biological Link or content described: Biosphere processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the Link: biosphere Link or content described: Hydrosphere , the Link: hydrosphere Link or content described: Pedosphere , the Link: pedosphere Link or content described: Earth , the Link: atmosphere Link or content described: Lithosphere , and the Link: lithosphere Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle ). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the Link: cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon , such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen and Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Life , and their interactions with and incorporation into Link: living things Link or content described: Carbon cycle transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen cycle , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Sulfur cycle , Link: sulfur Link or content described: Phosphorous ; cycle , and Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Systems thinking cycles. Biogeochemistry is a Link: systems science Link or content described: Systems ecology closely related to Link: Systems ecology Link or content described: Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky . The founder of biogeochemistry is Russian scientist Link: Vladimir Vernadsky Link or content described: Russians , a Link: Russian Link or content described: Mendeleev who, with his 1926 book The Biosphere Link: [1] , in the tradition of Link: Mendeleev Link or content described: Universe , is credited with formulating a physics of the earth, as a living whole. Vernadsky distinguished three spheres in the Link: universe domain Link or content described: Evolution , where a sphere is a concept similar to the Riemman concept of a space-phase. He observed that each sphere has its own laws of Link: evolution Link or content described: Anthropocene , and that the higher spheres modify and dominate the lowers: Abiotic sphere - all the non-living energy and material processes Biosphere - the life processes that live within the abiotic sphere Nöesis or Nösphere - the sphere of the cognitive process of man Human activities (e.g., agriculture and industry) modify the Biosphere and Abiotic sphere. In the contemporary environment, the amount of influence humans have on the other two spheres is comparable to a geological force (see Link: Anthropocene Link or content described: Limnology ). The American Link: limnologist Link or content described: Geochemistry and Link: geochemist Link or content described: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link or content described: James Lovelock is credited with outlining the broad scope and principles of this new field. More recently, the basic elements of the discipline of biogeochemistry were restated and popularized by the British scientist and writer, Link: James Lovelock Link or content described: Gaia theory (science) , under the label of the Link: Gaia Hypothesis Link or content described: Feedback . Lovelock emphasizes a concept that life processes regulate the Earth through Link: feedback Link or content described: Atmospheric sciences mechanisms to keep it habitable. There are biogeochemistry research groups in many universities around the world. Since this is a highly inter-disciplinary field, these are situated within a wide range of host disciplines including: Link: atmospheric sciences Link or content described: Biology , Link: biology Link or content described: Ecology , Link: ecology Link or content described: Geomicrobiology , Link: geomicrobiology Link or content described: Environmental chemistry , Link: environmental chemistry Link or content described: Geology , Link: geology Link or content described: Oceanography , Link: oceanography Link or content described: Soil science and Link: soil science Link or content described: Earth science . These are often bracketed into larger disciplines such as Link: earth science Link or content described: Environmental science and Link: environmental science Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle . Many researchers investigate the Link: biogeochemical cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Oxygen , Link: oxygen Link or content described: Nitrogen , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Phosphorus , Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Sulfur and Link: sulfur Link or content described: Stable isotope , as well as their Link: stable isotopes Link or content described: Trace element . The cycles of Link: trace elements Link or content described: Trace metal such as the Link: trace metals Link or content described: Radionuclide and the Link: radionuclides Link or content described: author profile are also studied. This research has obvious applications in the exploration for ore deposits and oil, and in remediation of environmental pollution. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:05:00-07:00 11:05 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Chemistry Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/biogeochemistry_11.htm
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Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the Link: chemical Link or content described: Physics , Link: physical Link or content described: Geology , Link: geological Link or content described: Biology , and Link: biological Link or content described: Biosphere processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the Link: biosphere Link or content described: Hydrosphere , the Link: hydrosphere Link or content described: Pedosphere , the Link: pedosphere Link or content described: Earth , the Link: atmosphere Link or content described: Lithosphere , and the Link: lithosphere Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle ). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the Link: cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon , such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen and Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Life , and their interactions with and incorporation into Link: living things Link or content described: Carbon cycle transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen cycle , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Sulfur cycle , Link: sulfur Link or content described: Phosphorous ; cycle , and Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Systems thinking cycles. Biogeochemistry is a Link: systems science Link or content described: Systems ecology closely related to Link: Systems ecology Link or content described: Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky . The founder of biogeochemistry is Russian scientist Link: Vladimir Vernadsky Link or content described: Russians , a Link: Russian Link or content described: Mendeleev who, with his 1926 book The Biosphere Link: [1] , in the tradition of Link: Mendeleev Link or content described: Universe , is credited with formulating a physics of the earth, as a living whole. Vernadsky distinguished three spheres in the Link: universe domain Link or content described: Evolution , where a sphere is a concept similar to the Riemman concept of a space-phase. He observed that each sphere has its own laws of Link: evolution Link or content described: Anthropocene , and that the higher spheres modify and dominate the lowers: Abiotic sphere - all the non-living energy and material processes Biosphere - the life processes that live within the abiotic sphere Nöesis or Nösphere - the sphere of the cognitive process of man Human activities (e.g., agriculture and industry) modify the Biosphere and Abiotic sphere. In the contemporary environment, the amount of influence humans have on the other two spheres is comparable to a geological force (see Link: Anthropocene Link or content described: Limnology ). The American Link: limnologist Link or content described: Geochemistry and Link: geochemist Link or content described: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link or content described: James Lovelock is credited with outlining the broad scope and principles of this new field. More recently, the basic elements of the discipline of biogeochemistry were restated and popularized by the British scientist and writer, Link: James Lovelock Link or content described: Gaia theory (science) , under the label of the Link: Gaia Hypothesis Link or content described: Feedback . Lovelock emphasizes a concept that life processes regulate the Earth through Link: feedback Link or content described: Atmospheric sciences mechanisms to keep it habitable. There are biogeochemistry research groups in many universities around the world. Since this is a highly inter-disciplinary field, these are situated within a wide range of host disciplines including: Link: atmospheric sciences Link or content described: Biology , Link: biology Link or content described: Ecology , Link: ecology Link or content described: Geomicrobiology , Link: geomicrobiology Link or content described: Environmental chemistry , Link: environmental chemistry Link or content described: Geology , Link: geology Link or content described: Oceanography , Link: oceanography Link or content described: Soil science and Link: soil science Link or content described: Earth science . These are often bracketed into larger disciplines such as Link: earth science Link or content described: Environmental science and Link: environmental science Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle . Many researchers investigate the Link: biogeochemical cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Oxygen , Link: oxygen Link or content described: Nitrogen , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Phosphorus , Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Sulfur and Link: sulfur Link or content described: Stable isotope , as well as their Link: stable isotopes Link or content described: Trace element . The cycles of Link: trace elements Link or content described: Trace metal such as the Link: trace metals Link or content described: Radionuclide and the Link: radionuclides Link or content described: author profile are also studied. This research has obvious applications in the exploration for ore deposits and oil, and in remediation of environmental pollution. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:05:00-07:00 11:05 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: author profile Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/biogeochemistry.html' size='medium' annotation='inline'/ schema .org BlogPosting' Link:

Link: AGROECOLOGY

The term agroecology can be used in multiple ways, as a science, as a movement and as a practice. Broadly stated, it is the study of the role of agriculture in the world. Agroecology provides an interdisciplinary framework with which to study the activity ofagriculture. In this framework, agriculture does not exist as an isolated entity, but as part of an ecology of contexts. Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystem , and the field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming, whether it be organic ,con vent ional , intensive or extensive. Further more , it is not defined by certain management practices, such as the use of in place of insecticides, or polyculture in place of monoculture. Additionally, agroecologists do not unanimously oppose technology or inputs in agriculture but instead assess how, when, and if technology can be used in conjunction with natural, social and human assets. Agroecology proposes a context- or site-specific manner of studying agroecosystems, and as such, it recognizes that there is no universal formula or recipe for the success and maximum well-being of an agroecosystem. Instead, agroecologists may study questions related to the four system properties of agroecosystems:productivity ,stability, sustainability and equitability .As opposed to disciplines that are concerned with only one or some of these properties, agroecologists see all four properties as interconnected and integral to the success of an agroecosystem. Recognizing that these properties are found on varying spatial scales, agroecologists do not limit themselves to the study of agroecosystems at any one scale: farm, community, or global. Agroecologists study these four properties through an interdisciplinary lens, using natural sciences to understand elements of agroecosystems such as soil properties and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:03:00-07:00 11:03 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Older Posts Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/agroecology.html' size='medium' annotation='inline'/ HTML comment: Google _ad_section_end Link: Older Posts Link or content described: Edit Link: Home Subscribe to: Link: Posts (Atom)

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      1. Link: ENVIRONMENT PSYCHOLOGY
      2. Link: ecological health
      3. Link: ecological engineering
      4. Link: ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
      5. Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
      6. Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
      7. Link: AGROECOLOGY
      8. Link: COMPUTER SCIENCE
      9. Link: BIOCHEMISTRY
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Sunday, July 11, 2010

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Link: ENVIRONMENT PSYCHOLOGY

Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the term environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments, and informational environments. Since its conception, the field has been committed to the development of a discipline that is both value oriented and problem oriented, prioritizing research aiming at solving complex environmental problems in the pursuit of individual well-being within a larger society. *When solving problems involving human-environment interactions, whether global or local, one must have a model of human nature that predicts the environmental conditions under which humans will behave in a decent and creative manner. With such a model one can design, manage, protect and/or restore environments that enhance reasonable behavior, predict what the likely outcome will be when these conditions are not met, and diagnose problem situations. The field develops such a model of human nature while retaining a broad and inherently multidisciplinary focus. It explores such dissimilar issues as common property resource management, wayfinding in complex settings, the effect of environmental stress on human performance, the characteristics of restorative environments, human information processing, and the promotion of durable conservation behavior. This multidisciplinary paradigm has not only characterized the dynamic for which environmental psychology is expected to develop, but it has been the catalyst in attracting other schools of knowledge in its pursuit as well aside from research psychologists. Geographers, economists, geographers, policy-makers, sociologists, anthropologists, educators, and product developers all have discovered and participated in this field. * Although "environmental psychology" is arguably the best-known and most comprehensive description of the field, it is also known as human factors science, cognitive ergonomics, environmental social sciences, architectural psychology, socio-architecture, ecological psychology, ecopsychology, behavioral geography, environment-behavior studies, person-environment studies, environmental sociology, social ecology, and environmental design research. It is the link between the person and the built environment. The origins of this field of study are unknown, however, Willy Hellpach is said to be the first to mention “Environmental Psychology”. One of his books, Geopsyche discusses topics such as how the sun and the moon affect human activity, the impact of extreme environments, and the effects of color and form. The end of World War II brought about a higher demand for developments in the field of social psychology particularly in the areas of attitude change, small-group processes, and intergroup conflict. This demand caused psychologists to begin applying social psychology theories to a number of social issues such as prejudice, war, and peace. It was thought that if these problems were addressed, underlying notions and principles would surface.Although this time period was crucial to the development of the field, the methodologies used to carry out the studies were questionable. At the time, studies were being conducted in a laboratory setting, which caused some doubt as to their validity in the real world. Consequently, environmental psychologists began to conduct studies outside of the laboratory, enabling the field to continue to progress. Today environmental psychology is being applied to many different areas such as Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:08:00-07:00 11:08 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Ecology Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/environment-psychology
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Link: ecological health

ecological engineering is an emerging of study integrating Link: ecology Link or content described: Engineering and Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem , concerned with the design, monitoring and construction of Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Human society . Acoording to Mitch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate Link: human society Link or content described: Natural environment with its Link: natural environment Link or content described: Howard Odum for the benefit of both". Link: [1] ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. ecological engineering was introduced by Link: Howard Odum Link or content described: Engineering and others Link: [2] as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. Mitsch and Jorgensen Link: [3] wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted Link: [4] Link: [5] the design should be systems based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum Link: [6] emphasized that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering. Mitsch and Jørgensen Link: [3] were the first to define ecological engineering and provide ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the number of principles Link: [7] . They defined and characterized ecological engineering in a 1989 book and clarified it further in their 2004 book (see Literature). They suggest the goal of ecological engineering is: a) the restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and b) the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as: it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems, it can be a field test of ecological theory, it relies on integrated system approaches, it conserves non-renewable energy, and it supports biological conservation. Bergen et al. Link: [8] defined ecological engineering as: utilizing ecological science and theory, applying to all types of ecosystems, adapting engineering design methods, and acknowledging a guiding value system. Barrett (1999) Link: [9] offers a more literal definition of the term: "the design, construction, operation and management (that is, engineering) of landscape/aquatic structures and associated plant and animal communities (that is, ecosystems) to benefit humanity and, often, nature." Barrett continues: "other terms with equivalent or similar meanings include ecotechnology and two terms most often used in the erosion control field: soil bioengineering and biotechnical engineering. However, ecoengineering should not be confused with 'biotechnology' when describing genetic engineering at the cellular level, or 'bioengineering' meaning construction of artificial body parts." This Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem discipline combines basic and applied science from engineering, ecology, economics, and natural sciences for the restoration and construction of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The field of ecological engineering is increasing in breadth and depth as more opportunities to design and use ecosystems as interfaces between technology and environment are explored. Link: [10] 9.ecological health ecological health or ecological integrity or ecological damage is used to refer to symptoms of an Link: ecosystem Link or content described: Carrying capacity 's pending loss of Link: carrying capacity Link or content described: Nature , its ability to perform Link: nature's services Link or content described: Ecocide , or a pending Link: ecocide Link or content described: Pollution , due to cumulative causes such as Link: pollution Link or content described: Environmental health . The term health is intended to evoke human Link: environmental health Link or content described: Medicine concerns, which are often closely related (but as a part of Link: medicine Link or content described: Ecology not Link: ecology Link or content described: Ecocide ). As with Link: ecocide Link or content described: Gaia philosophy , that term assumes that ecosystems can be said to be alive (see also Link: Gaia philosophy Link or content described: Integrity on this issue). While the term integrity or damage seems to take no position on this, it does assume that there is a definition of Link: integrity Link or content described: Ecosystem that can be said to apply to Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Ecological wisdom . The more political term Link: ecological wisdom Link or content described: Biodiversity refers not only to recognition of a level of health, integrity or potential damage, but also, to a decision to do nothing (more) to harm that ecosystem or its dependents. Measures of ecological health, like measures of the more specific principle of Link: biodiversity Link or content described: Ecoregion , tend to be specific to an Link: ecoregion Link or content described: Ecosystem or even to an Link: ecosystem Link or content described: Biodiversity . Measures that depend on Link: biodiversity Link or content described: Ecological effects of biodiversity are valid indicators of ecological health as stability and productivity (good indicators of ecological health) are two Link: ecological effects of biodiversity Link or content described: Waste . Dependencies between species vary so much as to be difficult to express abstractly. However, there are a few universal symptoms of poor health or damage to system integrity: The buildup of Link: waste Link or content described: Bacterium material and the proliferation of simpler life forms ( Link: bacteria Link or content described: Insect , Link: insects Link or content described: Keystone species ) that thrive on it - but no consequent population growth in those species that normally prey on them; The loss of Link: keystone species Link or content described: Predator , often a top Link: predator Link or content described: Carnivore , causing smaller Link: carnivores Link or content described: Herbivore to proliferate, very often overstressing Link: herbivore Link or content described: Disease populations; A higher rate of species mortality due to Link: disease Link or content described: Bioinvader rather than predation, climate, or food scarcity; The migration of whole species into or out of a region, contrary to established or historical patterns; The proliferation of a Link: bioinvader Link or content described: Monoculture or even a Link: monoculture Link or content described: Organic farm where previously a more biodiverse species range existed. Some practices such as Link: organic farming Link or content described: Sustainable forestry , Link: sustainable forestry Link or content described: Landscaping , natural Link: landscaping Link or content described: Gardening , wild Link: gardening Link or content described: Precision agriculture or Link: precision agriculture Link or content described: Sustainable agriculture , sometimes combined into Link: sustainable agriculture Link or content described: Ecology , are thought to improve or at least not to degrade ecological health, while still keeping land usable for human purposes. This is difficult to investigate as part of Link: ecology Link or content described: Agricultural economics , but is increasingly part of discourse on Link: agricultural economics Link or content described: Conservation ethic and Link: conservation Link or content described: Ecotage . Link: Ecotage Link or content described: Political virtues is another tactic thought to be effective by some in protecting the health of ecosystems, but this is hotly disputed. In general, low confrontation and much attention to Link: political virtues Link or content described: Competition is thought to be important to maintaining ecological health, as it is far faster and simpler to destroy an ecosystem than protect it - thus wars on behalf of ecosystem integrity may simply lead to more rapid despoliation and loss due to Link: competition Link or content described: Scorched earth . See Link: scorched earth Link or content described: Easter Island Syndrome and Link: Easter Island Syndrome Link or content described: Deforestation . Link: Deforestation Link or content described: Coral reef and the loss of deep-sea Link: coral reef Link or content described: Clearcut habitat are two issues that prompt deep investigation of what makes for ecological health, and fuels a great many debates. The role of Link: clearcuts Link or content described: Plantation , Link: plantations Link or content described: Commercial trawler and Link: trawler Link or content described: Weapon nets is often portrayed as negative in the extreme, held akin to the role of Link: weapons Link or content described: author profile on human life. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:07:00-07:00 11:07 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! 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Link: ecological engineering

ecological engineering is an emerging of study integrating Link: ecology Link or content described: Engineering and Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem , concerned with the design, monitoring and construction of Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Human society . Acoording to Mitch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate Link: human society Link or content described: Natural environment with its Link: natural environment Link or content described: Howard Odum for the benefit of both". Link: [1] ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. ecological engineering was introduced by Link: Howard Odum Link or content described: Engineering and others Link: [2] as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. Mitsch and Jorgensen Link: [3] wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted Link: [4] Link: [5] the design should be systems based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum Link: [6] emphasized that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering. Mitsch and Jørgensen Link: [3] were the first to define ecological engineering and provide ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the number of principles Link: [7] . They defined and characterized ecological engineering in a 1989 book and clarified it further in their 2004 book (see Literature). They suggest the goal of ecological engineering is: a) the restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and b) the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as: it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems, it can be a field test of ecological theory, it relies on integrated system approaches, it conserves non-renewable energy, and it supports biological conservation. Bergen et al. Link: [8] defined ecological engineering as: utilizing ecological science and theory, applying to all types of ecosystems, adapting engineering design methods, and acknowledging a guiding value system. Barrett (1999) Link: [9] offers a more literal definition of the term: "the design, construction, operation and management (that is, engineering) of landscape/aquatic structures and associated plant and animal communities (that is, ecosystems) to benefit humanity and, often, nature." Barrett continues: "other terms with equivalent or similar meanings include ecotechnology and two terms most often used in the erosion control field: soil bioengineering and biotechnical engineering. However, ecoengineering should not be confused with 'biotechnology' when describing genetic engineering at the cellular level, or 'bioengineering' meaning construction of artificial body parts." This Link: engineering Link or content described: author profile discipline combines basic and applied science from engineering, ecology, economics, and natural sciences for the restoration and construction of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The field of ecological engineering is increasing in breadth and depth as more opportunities to design and use ecosystems as interfaces between technology and environment are explored. Link: [10] Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:06:00-07:00 11:06 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Transdisciplinary Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/ecological-engineering
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Link: ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

Ecological economics is a Link: transdisciplinary Link or content described: Coevolution field of academic research that aims to address the interdependence and Link: coevolution Link or content described: Economy of human Link: economies Link or content described: Ecosystem and natural Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Environmental economics over time and space. Link: [2] It is distinguished from Link: environmental economics Link or content described: Mainstream economics , which is the Link: mainstream economic Link or content described: Natural capital analysis of the environment, by its treatment of the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem and its emphasis upon preserving Link: natural capital Link or content described: Schools of economic thought . Link: [3] One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different Link: schools of economic thought Link or content described: Sustainability , with ecological economists emphasizing "strong" Link: sustainability Link or content described: Kenneth E. Boulding and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted for human-made capital. Link: [4] Ecological economics was founded in the works of Link: Kenneth E. Boulding Link or content described: Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen , Link: Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen Link or content described: Herman Daly , Link: Herman Daly Link or content described: Robert Costanza , Link: Robert Costanza Link or content described: Intergenerational equity , and others. The related field of green economics is, in general, a more politically applied form of the subject. Link: [5] Link: [6] The identity of ecological economics as a field has been described as fragile, with no generally accepted theoretical framework and a knowledge structure which is not clearly defined. Link: [7] According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time. Issues of Link: intergenerational equity Link or content described: Irreversibility , Link: irreversibility Link or content described: Uncertainty of environmental change, Link: uncertainty Link or content described: Sustainable development of long-term outcomes, and Link: sustainable development Link or content described: Cost-benefit analysis guide ecological economic analysis and valuation. Link: [7] Ecological economists have questioned fundamental mainstream economic approaches such as Link: cost-benefit analysis Link or content described: Normative ethics , and the separability of economic values from scientific research, contending that economics is unavoidably Link: normative Link or content described: Positive economics rather than Link: positive Link or content described: Biophysical economics (empirical). Link: [8] Positional analysis, which attempts to incorporate time and justice issues, is proposed as an alternative. Link: [9] Link: [10] Ecological economics includes the study of the metabolism of society, that is, the study of the flows of energy and materials that enter and exit the economic system. This subfield is also called Link: biophysical economics Link or content described: Bioeconomics , sometimes referred to also as Link: bioeconomics Link or content described: Wikipedia:Citation needed . It is based on a conceptual model of the economy connected to, and sustained by, a flow of energy, materials, and ecosystem services. [ Link: citation needed Link or content described: Sustainability ] Analysts from a variety of disciplines have conducted research on the economy-environment relationship, with concern for energy and material flows and Link: sustainability Link or content described: Environmental quality , Link: environmental quality Link or content described: Circular flow of income , and economic development. A simple Link: circular flow of income Link or content described: Production, costs, and pricing diagram is replaced in ecological economics by a more complex flow diagram reflecting the input of solar energy, which sustains natural inputs and environmental services which are then used as units of Link: production Link or content described: author profile . Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy as pollution and waste. The potential of an environment to provide services and materials is referred to as an "environment's source function", and this function is depleted as resources are consumed or pollution contaminates the resources. The "sink function" describes an environment's ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution: when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs. Link: [11] :8 Some persistent pollutants, such as some organic pollutants and nuclear waste are absorbed very slowly or not at all; ecological economists emphasize minimizing "cumulative pollutants". Link: [11] :28 Pollutants affect human health and the health of the climate. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:06:00-07:00 11:06 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! 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Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the Link: chemical Link or content described: Physics , Link: physical Link or content described: Geology , Link: geological Link or content described: Biology , and Link: biological Link or content described: Biosphere processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the Link: biosphere Link or content described: Hydrosphere , the Link: hydrosphere Link or content described: Pedosphere , the Link: pedosphere Link or content described: Earth , the Link: atmosphere Link or content described: Lithosphere , and the Link: lithosphere Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle ). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the Link: cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon , such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen and Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Life , and their interactions with and incorporation into Link: living things Link or content described: Carbon cycle transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen cycle , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Sulfur cycle , Link: sulfur Link or content described: Phosphorous ; cycle , and Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Systems thinking cycles. Biogeochemistry is a Link: systems science Link or content described: Systems ecology closely related to Link: Systems ecology Link or content described: Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky . The founder of biogeochemistry is Russian scientist Link: Vladimir Vernadsky Link or content described: Russians , a Link: Russian Link or content described: Mendeleev who, with his 1926 book The Biosphere Link: [1] , in the tradition of Link: Mendeleev Link or content described: Universe , is credited with formulating a physics of the earth, as a living whole. Vernadsky distinguished three spheres in the Link: universe domain Link or content described: Evolution , where a sphere is a concept similar to the Riemman concept of a space-phase. He observed that each sphere has its own laws of Link: evolution Link or content described: Anthropocene , and that the higher spheres modify and dominate the lowers: Abiotic sphere - all the non-living energy and material processes Biosphere - the life processes that live within the abiotic sphere Nöesis or Nösphere - the sphere of the cognitive process of man Human activities (e.g., agriculture and industry) modify the Biosphere and Abiotic sphere. In the contemporary environment, the amount of influence humans have on the other two spheres is comparable to a geological force (see Link: Anthropocene Link or content described: Limnology ). The American Link: limnologist Link or content described: Geochemistry and Link: geochemist Link or content described: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link or content described: James Lovelock is credited with outlining the broad scope and principles of this new field. More recently, the basic elements of the discipline of biogeochemistry were restated and popularized by the British scientist and writer, Link: James Lovelock Link or content described: Gaia theory (science) , under the label of the Link: Gaia Hypothesis Link or content described: Feedback . Lovelock emphasizes a concept that life processes regulate the Earth through Link: feedback Link or content described: Atmospheric sciences mechanisms to keep it habitable. There are biogeochemistry research groups in many universities around the world. Since this is a highly inter-disciplinary field, these are situated within a wide range of host disciplines including: Link: atmospheric sciences Link or content described: Biology , Link: biology Link or content described: Ecology , Link: ecology Link or content described: Geomicrobiology , Link: geomicrobiology Link or content described: Environmental chemistry , Link: environmental chemistry Link or content described: Geology , Link: geology Link or content described: Oceanography , Link: oceanography Link or content described: Soil science and Link: soil science Link or content described: Earth science . These are often bracketed into larger disciplines such as Link: earth science Link or content described: Environmental science and Link: environmental science Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle . Many researchers investigate the Link: biogeochemical cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Oxygen , Link: oxygen Link or content described: Nitrogen , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Phosphorus , Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Sulfur and Link: sulfur Link or content described: Stable isotope , as well as their Link: stable isotopes Link or content described: Trace element . The cycles of Link: trace elements Link or content described: Trace metal such as the Link: trace metals Link or content described: Radionuclide and the Link: radionuclides Link or content described: author profile are also studied. This research has obvious applications in the exploration for ore deposits and oil, and in remediation of environmental pollution. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:05:00-07:00 11:05 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Chemistry Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/biogeochemistry_11.htm
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Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the Link: chemical Link or content described: Physics , Link: physical Link or content described: Geology , Link: geological Link or content described: Biology , and Link: biological Link or content described: Biosphere processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the Link: biosphere Link or content described: Hydrosphere , the Link: hydrosphere Link or content described: Pedosphere , the Link: pedosphere Link or content described: Earth , the Link: atmosphere Link or content described: Lithosphere , and the Link: lithosphere Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle ). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the Link: cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon , such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen and Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Life , and their interactions with and incorporation into Link: living things Link or content described: Carbon cycle transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen cycle , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Sulfur cycle , Link: sulfur Link or content described: Phosphorous ; cycle , and Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Systems thinking cycles. Biogeochemistry is a Link: systems science Link or content described: Systems ecology closely related to Link: Systems ecology Link or content described: Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky . The founder of biogeochemistry is Russian scientist Link: Vladimir Vernadsky Link or content described: Russians , a Link: Russian Link or content described: Mendeleev who, with his 1926 book The Biosphere Link: [1] , in the tradition of Link: Mendeleev Link or content described: Universe , is credited with formulating a physics of the earth, as a living whole. Vernadsky distinguished three spheres in the Link: universe domain Link or content described: Evolution , where a sphere is a concept similar to the Riemman concept of a space-phase. He observed that each sphere has its own laws of Link: evolution Link or content described: Anthropocene , and that the higher spheres modify and dominate the lowers: Abiotic sphere - all the non-living energy and material processes Biosphere - the life processes that live within the abiotic sphere Nöesis or Nösphere - the sphere of the cognitive process of man Human activities (e.g., agriculture and industry) modify the Biosphere and Abiotic sphere. In the contemporary environment, the amount of influence humans have on the other two spheres is comparable to a geological force (see Link: Anthropocene Link or content described: Limnology ). The American Link: limnologist Link or content described: Geochemistry and Link: geochemist Link or content described: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link or content described: James Lovelock is credited with outlining the broad scope and principles of this new field. More recently, the basic elements of the discipline of biogeochemistry were restated and popularized by the British scientist and writer, Link: James Lovelock Link or content described: Gaia theory (science) , under the label of the Link: Gaia Hypothesis Link or content described: Feedback . Lovelock emphasizes a concept that life processes regulate the Earth through Link: feedback Link or content described: Atmospheric sciences mechanisms to keep it habitable. There are biogeochemistry research groups in many universities around the world. Since this is a highly inter-disciplinary field, these are situated within a wide range of host disciplines including: Link: atmospheric sciences Link or content described: Biology , Link: biology Link or content described: Ecology , Link: ecology Link or content described: Geomicrobiology , Link: geomicrobiology Link or content described: Environmental chemistry , Link: environmental chemistry Link or content described: Geology , Link: geology Link or content described: Oceanography , Link: oceanography Link or content described: Soil science and Link: soil science Link or content described: Earth science . These are often bracketed into larger disciplines such as Link: earth science Link or content described: Environmental science and Link: environmental science Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle . Many researchers investigate the Link: biogeochemical cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Oxygen , Link: oxygen Link or content described: Nitrogen , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Phosphorus , Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Sulfur and Link: sulfur Link or content described: Stable isotope , as well as their Link: stable isotopes Link or content described: Trace element . The cycles of Link: trace elements Link or content described: Trace metal such as the Link: trace metals Link or content described: Radionuclide and the Link: radionuclides Link or content described: author profile are also studied. This research has obvious applications in the exploration for ore deposits and oil, and in remediation of environmental pollution. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:05:00-07:00 11:05 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: author profile Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/biogeochemistry.html' size='medium' annotation='inline'/ schema .org BlogPosting' Link:

Link: AGROECOLOGY

The term agroecology can be used in multiple ways, as a science, as a movement and as a practice. Broadly stated, it is the study of the role of agriculture in the world. Agroecology provides an interdisciplinary framework with which to study the activity ofagriculture. In this framework, agriculture does not exist as an isolated entity, but as part of an ecology of contexts. Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystem , and the field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming, whether it be organic ,con vent ional , intensive or extensive. Further more , it is not defined by certain management practices, such as the use of in place of insecticides, or polyculture in place of monoculture. Additionally, agroecologists do not unanimously oppose technology or inputs in agriculture but instead assess how, when, and if technology can be used in conjunction with natural, social and human assets. Agroecology proposes a context- or site-specific manner of studying agroecosystems, and as such, it recognizes that there is no universal formula or recipe for the success and maximum well-being of an agroecosystem. Instead, agroecologists may study questions related to the four system properties of agroecosystems:productivity ,stability, sustainability and equitability .As opposed to disciplines that are concerned with only one or some of these properties, agroecologists see all four properties as interconnected and integral to the success of an agroecosystem. Recognizing that these properties are found on varying spatial scales, agroecologists do not limit themselves to the study of agroecosystems at any one scale: farm, community, or global. Agroecologists study these four properties through an interdisciplinary lens, using natural sciences to understand elements of agroecosystems such as soil properties and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:03:00-07:00 11:03 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Older Posts Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/agroecology.html' size='medium' annotation='inline'/ HTML comment: Google _ad_section_end Link: Older Posts Link or content described: Edit Link: Home Subscribe to: Link: Posts (Atom)

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      1. Link: ENVIRONMENT PSYCHOLOGY
      2. Link: ecological health
      3. Link: ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
      4. Link: ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
      5. Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
      6. Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
      7. Link: AGROECOLOGY
      8. Link: COMPUTER SCIENCE
      9. Link: BIOCHEMISTRY
      10. Link: astronomy
      11. Link: .ARCHAEOLOGY
      12. Link: Scientific and Critical Thinking
      13. Link: Introduction

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Sunday, July 11, 2010

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Link: ENVIRONMENT PSYCHOLOGY

Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the term environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments, and informational environments. Since its conception, the field has been committed to the development of a discipline that is both value oriented and problem oriented, prioritizing research aiming at solving complex environmental problems in the pursuit of individual well-being within a larger society. *When solving problems involving human-environment interactions, whether global or local, one must have a model of human nature that predicts the environmental conditions under which humans will behave in a decent and creative manner. With such a model one can design, manage, protect and/or restore environments that enhance reasonable behavior, predict what the likely outcome will be when these conditions are not met, and diagnose problem situations. The field develops such a model of human nature while retaining a broad and inherently multidisciplinary focus. It explores such dissimilar issues as common property resource management, wayfinding in complex settings, the effect of environmental stress on human performance, the characteristics of restorative environments, human information processing, and the promotion of durable conservation behavior. This multidisciplinary paradigm has not only characterized the dynamic for which environmental psychology is expected to develop, but it has been the catalyst in attracting other schools of knowledge in its pursuit as well aside from research psychologists. Geographers, economists, geographers, policy-makers, sociologists, anthropologists, educators, and product developers all have discovered and participated in this field. * Although "environmental psychology" is arguably the best-known and most comprehensive description of the field, it is also known as human factors science, cognitive ergonomics, environmental social sciences, architectural psychology, socio-architecture, ecological psychology, ecopsychology, behavioral geography, environment-behavior studies, person-environment studies, environmental sociology, social ecology, and environmental design research. It is the link between the person and the built environment. The origins of this field of study are unknown, however, Willy Hellpach is said to be the first to mention “Environmental Psychology”. One of his books, Geopsyche discusses topics such as how the sun and the moon affect human activity, the impact of extreme environments, and the effects of color and form. The end of World War II brought about a higher demand for developments in the field of social psychology particularly in the areas of attitude change, small-group processes, and intergroup conflict. This demand caused psychologists to begin applying social psychology theories to a number of social issues such as prejudice, war, and peace. It was thought that if these problems were addressed, underlying notions and principles would surface.Although this time period was crucial to the development of the field, the methodologies used to carry out the studies were questionable. At the time, studies were being conducted in a laboratory setting, which caused some doubt as to their validity in the real world. Consequently, environmental psychologists began to conduct studies outside of the laboratory, enabling the field to continue to progress. Today environmental psychology is being applied to many different areas such as Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:08:00-07:00 11:08 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Ecology Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/environment-psychology
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Link: ecological health

ecological engineering is an emerging of study integrating Link: ecology Link or content described: Engineering and Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem , concerned with the design, monitoring and construction of Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Human society . Acoording to Mitch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate Link: human society Link or content described: Natural environment with its Link: natural environment Link or content described: Howard Odum for the benefit of both". Link: [1] ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. ecological engineering was introduced by Link: Howard Odum Link or content described: Engineering and others Link: [2] as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. Mitsch and Jorgensen Link: [3] wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted Link: [4] Link: [5] the design should be systems based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum Link: [6] emphasized that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering. Mitsch and Jørgensen Link: [3] were the first to define ecological engineering and provide ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the number of principles Link: [7] . They defined and characterized ecological engineering in a 1989 book and clarified it further in their 2004 book (see Literature). They suggest the goal of ecological engineering is: a) the restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and b) the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as: it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems, it can be a field test of ecological theory, it relies on integrated system approaches, it conserves non-renewable energy, and it supports biological conservation. Bergen et al. Link: [8] defined ecological engineering as: utilizing ecological science and theory, applying to all types of ecosystems, adapting engineering design methods, and acknowledging a guiding value system. Barrett (1999) Link: [9] offers a more literal definition of the term: "the design, construction, operation and management (that is, engineering) of landscape/aquatic structures and associated plant and animal communities (that is, ecosystems) to benefit humanity and, often, nature." Barrett continues: "other terms with equivalent or similar meanings include ecotechnology and two terms most often used in the erosion control field: soil bioengineering and biotechnical engineering. However, ecoengineering should not be confused with 'biotechnology' when describing genetic engineering at the cellular level, or 'bioengineering' meaning construction of artificial body parts." This Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem discipline combines basic and applied science from engineering, ecology, economics, and natural sciences for the restoration and construction of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The field of ecological engineering is increasing in breadth and depth as more opportunities to design and use ecosystems as interfaces between technology and environment are explored. Link: [10] 9.ecological health ecological health or ecological integrity or ecological damage is used to refer to symptoms of an Link: ecosystem Link or content described: Carrying capacity 's pending loss of Link: carrying capacity Link or content described: Nature , its ability to perform Link: nature's services Link or content described: Ecocide , or a pending Link: ecocide Link or content described: Pollution , due to cumulative causes such as Link: pollution Link or content described: Environmental health . The term health is intended to evoke human Link: environmental health Link or content described: Medicine concerns, which are often closely related (but as a part of Link: medicine Link or content described: Ecology not Link: ecology Link or content described: Ecocide ). As with Link: ecocide Link or content described: Gaia philosophy , that term assumes that ecosystems can be said to be alive (see also Link: Gaia philosophy Link or content described: Integrity on this issue). While the term integrity or damage seems to take no position on this, it does assume that there is a definition of Link: integrity Link or content described: Ecosystem that can be said to apply to Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Ecological wisdom . The more political term Link: ecological wisdom Link or content described: Biodiversity refers not only to recognition of a level of health, integrity or potential damage, but also, to a decision to do nothing (more) to harm that ecosystem or its dependents. Measures of ecological health, like measures of the more specific principle of Link: biodiversity Link or content described: Ecoregion , tend to be specific to an Link: ecoregion Link or content described: Ecosystem or even to an Link: ecosystem Link or content described: Biodiversity . Measures that depend on Link: biodiversity Link or content described: Ecological effects of biodiversity are valid indicators of ecological health as stability and productivity (good indicators of ecological health) are two Link: ecological effects of biodiversity Link or content described: Waste . Dependencies between species vary so much as to be difficult to express abstractly. However, there are a few universal symptoms of poor health or damage to system integrity: The buildup of Link: waste Link or content described: Bacterium material and the proliferation of simpler life forms ( Link: bacteria Link or content described: Insect , Link: insects Link or content described: Keystone species ) that thrive on it - but no consequent population growth in those species that normally prey on them; The loss of Link: keystone species Link or content described: Predator , often a top Link: predator Link or content described: Carnivore , causing smaller Link: carnivores Link or content described: Herbivore to proliferate, very often overstressing Link: herbivore Link or content described: Disease populations; A higher rate of species mortality due to Link: disease Link or content described: Bioinvader rather than predation, climate, or food scarcity; The migration of whole species into or out of a region, contrary to established or historical patterns; The proliferation of a Link: bioinvader Link or content described: Monoculture or even a Link: monoculture Link or content described: Organic farm where previously a more biodiverse species range existed. Some practices such as Link: organic farming Link or content described: Sustainable forestry , Link: sustainable forestry Link or content described: Landscaping , natural Link: landscaping Link or content described: Gardening , wild Link: gardening Link or content described: Precision agriculture or Link: precision agriculture Link or content described: Sustainable agriculture , sometimes combined into Link: sustainable agriculture Link or content described: Ecology , are thought to improve or at least not to degrade ecological health, while still keeping land usable for human purposes. This is difficult to investigate as part of Link: ecology Link or content described: Agricultural economics , but is increasingly part of discourse on Link: agricultural economics Link or content described: Conservation ethic and Link: conservation Link or content described: Ecotage . Link: Ecotage Link or content described: Political virtues is another tactic thought to be effective by some in protecting the health of ecosystems, but this is hotly disputed. In general, low confrontation and much attention to Link: political virtues Link or content described: Competition is thought to be important to maintaining ecological health, as it is far faster and simpler to destroy an ecosystem than protect it - thus wars on behalf of ecosystem integrity may simply lead to more rapid despoliation and loss due to Link: competition Link or content described: Scorched earth . See Link: scorched earth Link or content described: Easter Island Syndrome and Link: Easter Island Syndrome Link or content described: Deforestation . Link: Deforestation Link or content described: Coral reef and the loss of deep-sea Link: coral reef Link or content described: Clearcut habitat are two issues that prompt deep investigation of what makes for ecological health, and fuels a great many debates. The role of Link: clearcuts Link or content described: Plantation , Link: plantations Link or content described: Commercial trawler and Link: trawler Link or content described: Weapon nets is often portrayed as negative in the extreme, held akin to the role of Link: weapons Link or content described: author profile on human life. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:07:00-07:00 11:07 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! 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Link: ecological engineering

ecological engineering is an emerging of study integrating Link: ecology Link or content described: Engineering and Link: engineering Link or content described: Ecosystem , concerned with the design, monitoring and construction of Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Human society . Acoording to Mitch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate Link: human society Link or content described: Natural environment with its Link: natural environment Link or content described: Howard Odum for the benefit of both". Link: [1] ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. ecological engineering was introduced by Link: Howard Odum Link or content described: Engineering and others Link: [2] as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. Mitsch and Jorgensen Link: [3] wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted Link: [4] Link: [5] the design should be systems based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum Link: [6] emphasized that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering. Mitsch and Jørgensen Link: [3] were the first to define ecological engineering and provide ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the number of principles Link: [7] . They defined and characterized ecological engineering in a 1989 book and clarified it further in their 2004 book (see Literature). They suggest the goal of ecological engineering is: a) the restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and b) the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as: it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems, it can be a field test of ecological theory, it relies on integrated system approaches, it conserves non-renewable energy, and it supports biological conservation. Bergen et al. Link: [8] defined ecological engineering as: utilizing ecological science and theory, applying to all types of ecosystems, adapting engineering design methods, and acknowledging a guiding value system. Barrett (1999) Link: [9] offers a more literal definition of the term: "the design, construction, operation and management (that is, engineering) of landscape/aquatic structures and associated plant and animal communities (that is, ecosystems) to benefit humanity and, often, nature." Barrett continues: "other terms with equivalent or similar meanings include ecotechnology and two terms most often used in the erosion control field: soil bioengineering and biotechnical engineering. However, ecoengineering should not be confused with 'biotechnology' when describing genetic engineering at the cellular level, or 'bioengineering' meaning construction of artificial body parts." This Link: engineering Link or content described: author profile discipline combines basic and applied science from engineering, ecology, economics, and natural sciences for the restoration and construction of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The field of ecological engineering is increasing in breadth and depth as more opportunities to design and use ecosystems as interfaces between technology and environment are explored. Link: [10] Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:06:00-07:00 11:06 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Transdisciplinary Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/ecological-engineering
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Link: ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

Ecological economics is a Link: transdisciplinary Link or content described: Coevolution field of academic research that aims to address the interdependence and Link: coevolution Link or content described: Economy of human Link: economies Link or content described: Ecosystem and natural Link: ecosystems Link or content described: Environmental economics over time and space. Link: [2] It is distinguished from Link: environmental economics Link or content described: Mainstream economics , which is the Link: mainstream economic Link or content described: Natural capital analysis of the environment, by its treatment of the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem and its emphasis upon preserving Link: natural capital Link or content described: Schools of economic thought . Link: [3] One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different Link: schools of economic thought Link or content described: Sustainability , with ecological economists emphasizing "strong" Link: sustainability Link or content described: Kenneth E. Boulding and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted for human-made capital. Link: [4] Ecological economics was founded in the works of Link: Kenneth E. Boulding Link or content described: Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen , Link: Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen Link or content described: Herman Daly , Link: Herman Daly Link or content described: Robert Costanza , Link: Robert Costanza Link or content described: Intergenerational equity , and others. The related field of green economics is, in general, a more politically applied form of the subject. Link: [5] Link: [6] The identity of ecological economics as a field has been described as fragile, with no generally accepted theoretical framework and a knowledge structure which is not clearly defined. Link: [7] According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time. Issues of Link: intergenerational equity Link or content described: Irreversibility , Link: irreversibility Link or content described: Uncertainty of environmental change, Link: uncertainty Link or content described: Sustainable development of long-term outcomes, and Link: sustainable development Link or content described: Cost-benefit analysis guide ecological economic analysis and valuation. Link: [7] Ecological economists have questioned fundamental mainstream economic approaches such as Link: cost-benefit analysis Link or content described: Normative ethics , and the separability of economic values from scientific research, contending that economics is unavoidably Link: normative Link or content described: Positive economics rather than Link: positive Link or content described: Biophysical economics (empirical). Link: [8] Positional analysis, which attempts to incorporate time and justice issues, is proposed as an alternative. Link: [9] Link: [10] Ecological economics includes the study of the metabolism of society, that is, the study of the flows of energy and materials that enter and exit the economic system. This subfield is also called Link: biophysical economics Link or content described: Bioeconomics , sometimes referred to also as Link: bioeconomics Link or content described: Wikipedia:Citation needed . It is based on a conceptual model of the economy connected to, and sustained by, a flow of energy, materials, and ecosystem services. [ Link: citation needed Link or content described: Sustainability ] Analysts from a variety of disciplines have conducted research on the economy-environment relationship, with concern for energy and material flows and Link: sustainability Link or content described: Environmental quality , Link: environmental quality Link or content described: Circular flow of income , and economic development. A simple Link: circular flow of income Link or content described: Production, costs, and pricing diagram is replaced in ecological economics by a more complex flow diagram reflecting the input of solar energy, which sustains natural inputs and environmental services which are then used as units of Link: production Link or content described: author profile . Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy as pollution and waste. The potential of an environment to provide services and materials is referred to as an "environment's source function", and this function is depleted as resources are consumed or pollution contaminates the resources. The "sink function" describes an environment's ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution: when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs. Link: [11] :8 Some persistent pollutants, such as some organic pollutants and nuclear waste are absorbed very slowly or not at all; ecological economists emphasize minimizing "cumulative pollutants". Link: [11] :28 Pollutants affect human health and the health of the climate. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:06:00-07:00 11:06 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! 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Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the Link: chemical Link or content described: Physics , Link: physical Link or content described: Geology , Link: geological Link or content described: Biology , and Link: biological Link or content described: Biosphere processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the Link: biosphere Link or content described: Hydrosphere , the Link: hydrosphere Link or content described: Pedosphere , the Link: pedosphere Link or content described: Earth , the Link: atmosphere Link or content described: Lithosphere , and the Link: lithosphere Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle ). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the Link: cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon , such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen and Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Life , and their interactions with and incorporation into Link: living things Link or content described: Carbon cycle transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen cycle , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Sulfur cycle , Link: sulfur Link or content described: Phosphorous ; cycle , and Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Systems thinking cycles. Biogeochemistry is a Link: systems science Link or content described: Systems ecology closely related to Link: Systems ecology Link or content described: Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky . The founder of biogeochemistry is Russian scientist Link: Vladimir Vernadsky Link or content described: Russians , a Link: Russian Link or content described: Mendeleev who, with his 1926 book The Biosphere Link: [1] , in the tradition of Link: Mendeleev Link or content described: Universe , is credited with formulating a physics of the earth, as a living whole. Vernadsky distinguished three spheres in the Link: universe domain Link or content described: Evolution , where a sphere is a concept similar to the Riemman concept of a space-phase. He observed that each sphere has its own laws of Link: evolution Link or content described: Anthropocene , and that the higher spheres modify and dominate the lowers: Abiotic sphere - all the non-living energy and material processes Biosphere - the life processes that live within the abiotic sphere Nöesis or Nösphere - the sphere of the cognitive process of man Human activities (e.g., agriculture and industry) modify the Biosphere and Abiotic sphere. In the contemporary environment, the amount of influence humans have on the other two spheres is comparable to a geological force (see Link: Anthropocene Link or content described: Limnology ). The American Link: limnologist Link or content described: Geochemistry and Link: geochemist Link or content described: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link or content described: James Lovelock is credited with outlining the broad scope and principles of this new field. More recently, the basic elements of the discipline of biogeochemistry were restated and popularized by the British scientist and writer, Link: James Lovelock Link or content described: Gaia theory (science) , under the label of the Link: Gaia Hypothesis Link or content described: Feedback . Lovelock emphasizes a concept that life processes regulate the Earth through Link: feedback Link or content described: Atmospheric sciences mechanisms to keep it habitable. There are biogeochemistry research groups in many universities around the world. Since this is a highly inter-disciplinary field, these are situated within a wide range of host disciplines including: Link: atmospheric sciences Link or content described: Biology , Link: biology Link or content described: Ecology , Link: ecology Link or content described: Geomicrobiology , Link: geomicrobiology Link or content described: Environmental chemistry , Link: environmental chemistry Link or content described: Geology , Link: geology Link or content described: Oceanography , Link: oceanography Link or content described: Soil science and Link: soil science Link or content described: Earth science . These are often bracketed into larger disciplines such as Link: earth science Link or content described: Environmental science and Link: environmental science Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle . Many researchers investigate the Link: biogeochemical cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Oxygen , Link: oxygen Link or content described: Nitrogen , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Phosphorus , Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Sulfur and Link: sulfur Link or content described: Stable isotope , as well as their Link: stable isotopes Link or content described: Trace element . The cycles of Link: trace elements Link or content described: Trace metal such as the Link: trace metals Link or content described: Radionuclide and the Link: radionuclides Link or content described: author profile are also studied. This research has obvious applications in the exploration for ore deposits and oil, and in remediation of environmental pollution. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:05:00-07:00 11:05 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Chemistry Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/biogeochemistry_11.htm
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Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the Link: chemical Link or content described: Physics , Link: physical Link or content described: Geology , Link: geological Link or content described: Biology , and Link: biological Link or content described: Biosphere processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the Link: biosphere Link or content described: Hydrosphere , the Link: hydrosphere Link or content described: Pedosphere , the Link: pedosphere Link or content described: Earth , the Link: atmosphere Link or content described: Lithosphere , and the Link: lithosphere Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle ). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the Link: cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon , such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen and Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Life , and their interactions with and incorporation into Link: living things Link or content described: Carbon cycle transported through earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of Link: carbon Link or content described: Nitrogen cycle , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Sulfur cycle , Link: sulfur Link or content described: Phosphorous ; cycle , and Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Systems thinking cycles. Biogeochemistry is a Link: systems science Link or content described: Systems ecology closely related to Link: Systems ecology Link or content described: Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky . The founder of biogeochemistry is Russian scientist Link: Vladimir Vernadsky Link or content described: Russians , a Link: Russian Link or content described: Mendeleev who, with his 1926 book The Biosphere Link: [1] , in the tradition of Link: Mendeleev Link or content described: Universe , is credited with formulating a physics of the earth, as a living whole. Vernadsky distinguished three spheres in the Link: universe domain Link or content described: Evolution , where a sphere is a concept similar to the Riemman concept of a space-phase. He observed that each sphere has its own laws of Link: evolution Link or content described: Anthropocene , and that the higher spheres modify and dominate the lowers: Abiotic sphere - all the non-living energy and material processes Biosphere - the life processes that live within the abiotic sphere Nöesis or Nösphere - the sphere of the cognitive process of man Human activities (e.g., agriculture and industry) modify the Biosphere and Abiotic sphere. In the contemporary environment, the amount of influence humans have on the other two spheres is comparable to a geological force (see Link: Anthropocene Link or content described: Limnology ). The American Link: limnologist Link or content described: Geochemistry and Link: geochemist Link or content described: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link: G. Evelyn Hutchinson Link or content described: James Lovelock is credited with outlining the broad scope and principles of this new field. More recently, the basic elements of the discipline of biogeochemistry were restated and popularized by the British scientist and writer, Link: James Lovelock Link or content described: Gaia theory (science) , under the label of the Link: Gaia Hypothesis Link or content described: Feedback . Lovelock emphasizes a concept that life processes regulate the Earth through Link: feedback Link or content described: Atmospheric sciences mechanisms to keep it habitable. There are biogeochemistry research groups in many universities around the world. Since this is a highly inter-disciplinary field, these are situated within a wide range of host disciplines including: Link: atmospheric sciences Link or content described: Biology , Link: biology Link or content described: Ecology , Link: ecology Link or content described: Geomicrobiology , Link: geomicrobiology Link or content described: Environmental chemistry , Link: environmental chemistry Link or content described: Geology , Link: geology Link or content described: Oceanography , Link: oceanography Link or content described: Soil science and Link: soil science Link or content described: Earth science . These are often bracketed into larger disciplines such as Link: earth science Link or content described: Environmental science and Link: environmental science Link or content described: Biogeochemical cycle . Many researchers investigate the Link: biogeochemical cycles Link or content described: Chemical element of Link: chemical elements Link or content described: Carbon such as Link: carbon Link or content described: Oxygen , Link: oxygen Link or content described: Nitrogen , Link: nitrogen Link or content described: Phosphorus , Link: phosphorus Link or content described: Sulfur and Link: sulfur Link or content described: Stable isotope , as well as their Link: stable isotopes Link or content described: Trace element . The cycles of Link: trace elements Link or content described: Trace metal such as the Link: trace metals Link or content described: Radionuclide and the Link: radionuclides Link or content described: author profile are also studied. This research has obvious applications in the exploration for ore deposits and oil, and in remediation of environmental pollution. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:05:00-07:00 11:05 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: author profile Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/biogeochemistry.html' size='medium' annotation='inline'/ schema .org BlogPosting' Link:

Link: AGROECOLOGY

The term agroecology can be used in multiple ways, as a science, as a movement and as a practice. Broadly stated, it is the study of the role of agriculture in the world. Agroecology provides an interdisciplinary framework with which to study the activity ofagriculture. In this framework, agriculture does not exist as an isolated entity, but as part of an ecology of contexts. Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystem , and the field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming, whether it be organic ,con vent ional , intensive or extensive. Further more , it is not defined by certain management practices, such as the use of in place of insecticides, or polyculture in place of monoculture. Additionally, agroecologists do not unanimously oppose technology or inputs in agriculture but instead assess how, when, and if technology can be used in conjunction with natural, social and human assets. Agroecology proposes a context- or site-specific manner of studying agroecosystems, and as such, it recognizes that there is no universal formula or recipe for the success and maximum well-being of an agroecosystem. Instead, agroecologists may study questions related to the four system properties of agroecosystems:productivity ,stability, sustainability and equitability .As opposed to disciplines that are concerned with only one or some of these properties, agroecologists see all four properties as interconnected and integral to the success of an agroecosystem. Recognizing that these properties are found on varying spatial scales, agroecologists do not limit themselves to the study of agroecosystems at any one scale: farm, community, or global. Agroecologists study these four properties through an interdisciplinary lens, using natural sciences to understand elements of agroecosystems such as soil properties and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the effects of farming practices on rural communities, economic constraints to developing new production methods, or cultural factors determining farming practices. Posted by Link: RAVI MAHARJAN Link or content described: permanent link at Link: Link or content described: 2010-07-11T23:03:00-07:00 11:03 PM Link or content described: Edit Post Link: 0 comments Link: Link or content described: Email This Link: Link or content described: BlogThis! Email This Link: Link or content described: Share to Twitter BlogThis! Link: Link or content described: Share to Facebook Share to Twitter Link: Link or content described: Older Posts Share to Facebook scienceworldss.blogspot .com 2010/07/agroecology.html' size='medium' annotation='inline'/ HTML comment: Google _ad_section_end Link: Older Posts Link or content described: Edit Link: Home Subscribe to: Link: Posts (Atom)

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      1. Link: ENVIRONMENT PSYCHOLOGY
      2. Link: ecological health
      3. Link: ecological engineering
      4. Link: ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
      5. Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
      6. Link: .BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
      7. Link: AGROECOLOGY
      8. Link: COMPUTER SCIENCE
      9. Link: BIOCHEMISTRY
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      12. Link: Scientific and Critical Thinking
      13. Link: Introduction

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